М Ы   П Р Е Д О С Т А В Л Я Е М   Т О Л Ь К О    К А Ч Е С Т В Е Н Н У Ю   И Н Ф О Р М А Ц И Ю

Минская коллекция рефератов (www.library.by/shpargalka) Основана в 1999 году

Телефон минского офиса: 8(029)7777-***

ON/OFF: Всемирная коллекция рефератов: российское отделение >>>  Publications for English-speaking students >>> Publications for French-speaking students >>>  Publications for German-speaking students >>>      

РЕФЕРАТЫ ЗДЕСЬ:

Белорусская история
Белорусская литература
Белорусский язык
Белорусская культура
Авиация
Астрономия
Автомобили
Английский язык
Архитектура
Биографии знаменитостей
Биология
Бухгалтерия и аудит
Военное дело
География
Дизайн
Иностранные языки
Интернет
Искусство
История
Компьютеры
Культурология
Лингвистика
Литература
Маркетинг и реклама
Математика
Медицина
Музыка
Немецкий язык
Образование и обучение
Политология
Право
Программирование
Психология
Разное
Религия
Сексология
Сельское хозяйство
Спорт
Технологии
Физика
Философия
Химия
Экология
Экономика
Начало
МОСКОВСКАЯ коллекция
ЧАСТНЫЕ коллекции
ПОИСК рефератов
ПЛАТНЫЕ YСЛYГИ:

Заказать реферат\курсовую
Рефераты и книги на CD
Поиск информации
НАШИМ КЛИЕНТАМ:

palette_zoom.gif (73 bytes)

Прислать реферат

palette_zoom.gif (73 bytes)

Vиртуальный Портфель
palette_zoom.gif (73 bytes) Доска почёта
palette_zoom.gif (73 bytes) Таблица Dискаунтов
ПОЛЕЗНО ЗНАТЬ:
+ О нас
+ Наша лицензия
+ Гарантия качества
+ Наши советы

"Шпаргалка" рекомендует...

WIRETAPPING

SOURCE: library.by

Wiretapping usually means the interception of telephone conversations by a listening device connected to the telephone wire or placed nearby. The message may be heard live, or it may be recorded or transmitted to another location.

Wiretapping is sometimes used as part of an investigative procedure called audio surveillance. The term wiretapping sometimes refers to the use of any electrical or electronic device to eavesdrop on private conversations. However, the interception of nontelephone conversations is usually called bugging or electronic eavesdropping.

Sophisticated methods and devices permit eavesdropping in almost any situation. Some types of microphones may be attached to a wall or a door so that conversations can be overheard through the partition. Directional microphones may be beamed or focused to pick up conversations from long distances. Even greater distances can be overcome by concealed miniature microphones and transmitters that send messages to a radio receiver.

In most countries, the right of people to speak freely in their homes and businesses and in public places--without fear of eavesdroppers--is considered extremely important. Many nations, states, and provinces have passed laws restricting or prohibiting various types of electronic surveillance. But much illegal eavesdropping continues, both by individuals and by governments.

In the United States, the problem of wiretapping and electronic eavesdropping has become a confusing and controversial legal issue. There is much disagreement about (1) the constitutionality of electronic surveillance by law enforcement agencies and (2) methods of controlling government eavesdropping if it is permitted. However, many Americans oppose wiretapping and bugging by either governments or private individuals.

The wiretapping controversy began in 1928, when the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that wiretapping did not violate the Fourth Amendment to the Constitution. This amendment sets forth restrictions on search and seizure.

In 1934, Congress passed the Federal Communications Act, which prohibits the interception and public disclosure of any wire or radio communication. On the basis of this law, the Supreme Court ruled in 1937 that evidence obtained by wiretapping cannot be used in a federal court. Following this ruling, federal officials argued that the 1934 law did not prohibit wiretapping by the government so long as the evidence was not used in court. Since 1940, U.S. Presidents have claimed constitutional power to order wiretaps in matters of national security.

In 1968, Congress passed a law permitting federal, state, and local government agencies to use wiretapping and bugging devices in certain crime investigations. Before undertaking such surveillance, an agency would have to obtain a court order. The law stated that nothing in it was intended to limit the President's constitutional authority to order wiretapping without court warrants in national security cases.

In the late 1960's and early 1970's, the executive branch broadly interpreted the national security provisions of the 1968 law. It conducted electronic surveillance without court approval on a number of domestic radicals it considered subversive. In 1972, the Supreme Court ruled that such surveillance without a court warrant was unconstitutional. Also in 1972, wiretapping of the Democratic Party's national headquarters became a main issue in the Watergate Scandal. Members of a committee working for the reelection of President Richard M. Nixon, a Republican, were involved in this wiretapping.

Contributor: George T. Felkenes, Dr.Crim., Prof. of Criminal Justice and Chair, Program in Politics and Policy, Claremont Graduate School.

FEBRUARY, 27, 2003

 

МИНСКАЯ КОЛЛЕКЦИЯ РЕФЕРАТОВ ™ 1999-2003

Телефонная "горячая линия": 8 (029) 7777-***
SMS-оператор: +375297777***
Для жителей других стран: +375 (29) 7777-***
*****@library.by (оператор)
Мы работаем с 9:00 до 21:00

HIT.BY на Youtube

Официальный канал на Ютуби проекта HIT.BY

Здесь собраны ТОЛЬКО видео хиты из Минска, Гомеля, Могилева, Бреста, Гродно и Витебска!

Ежедневные топ-видео из Беларуси

Любовь по-белорусски!

Проект KAHANNE.COM! Быстрые знакомства в Минске, Гомеле, Бресте, Могилеве, Витебске, Гродно! Только реальные люди. Мобильная версия. Около 112.000 анкет белорусов.

KAHANNE.COM

Что происходит? Скандалы и расследования


Минская коллекция рефератов (old version) - дочерний проект при библиотеки LIBRARY.BY, бесплатная и постоянно пополняемая пользователями коллекция белорусских рефератов, белорусских дипломных работ, белорусских курсовых работ, белорусских контрольных, белорусских докладов и белорусских эссе. Работает с 1999 года.