Questions:

1. How Russian statehood was born.

2. Gathering the Russian lands around Moscow.

The chronology of Russian statehood is usually conducted from Ancient Russia. The historical stage of development of the Old Russian state covers the time period from the VIII century to the middle of the XV. This is confirmed by written sources of Byzantine and Arabic origin. However, the eastern Slavic tribes have much more ancient roots. It is to them that the history of the Russian state goes back.

In ancient times, the Eastern Slavs preferred to settle on the banks of rivers and lakes, which were well-protected by dense forests. At that time, waterways were almost the only means of communication between the Slavic tribes. Historians of ancient times have recorded approximately fifteen major Slavic tribes and tribal alliances. These tribes became the main population of Ancient Rus, the early Russian state, in the 8th century.

Each of the Eastern Slavic tribes had its own territory. For example, the Ilmen Slavs lived near Lake Ilmen and along the Volkhov River. They built large cities such as Novgorod and Pskov. The Krivichi inhabited the upper reaches of the Dnieper River, where they founded the cities of Smolensk and Polotsk. The Severyans occupied the eastern bank of the middle Dnieper River, where they built the cities of Chernigov and Pereyaslav. The Polans settled on the opposite, western bank of the Dnieper River, where they founded the capital of the Old Russian state, Kiev. To the west of the Polyanians lived the Drevlians, to the south the Ulichs and Tiverts, and in the area between the Oka and the Volga the Vyatichi.

Ancient history, unfortunately, has brought to our time very little written information about the Slavic tribes of the Russian land. One of the oldest records of this kind is attributed to the Byzantine Emperor Maurice (582 - 602). to the author of the treatise "Strategikon". where it is said that "the tribes of the Slavs and the Ents are similar in their way of life, their customs, and their love of freedom; they cannot be persuaded to slavery or subjugation in their own country. They are numerous, hardy, and can easily endure heat, cold, rain, nudity, and lack of food. They treat foreigners who come to them with kindness...

Emperor Maurice, like most other ancient authors, notes such traits of the ancient Slavs of Russia as freedom-loving, courageous, hardworking, and hospitable. At the same time, it is emphasized that the Slavs are a serious enemy in war, people who are skilled in military affairs, steadfast in battles, and inventive in the art of war.

A later author who wrote about the Slavs in his writings, the tenth-century Arab writer Ahmed Ibn Fadlan, noted: "I saw the Rus when they arrived on their trade business and settled down by the Atil (or Itil - Volga) River. I have never seen men with more perfect bodies than these. They are like palm trees, fair-haired, red-faced, white-bodied... And each of (the men) has an axe, a sword and a knife, and with all this he never leaves."

The state formation of Ancient Rus was created under historically very difficult conditions. Constant raids by Varangian troops in the north and Khazar nomads in the south brought devastation and death to the lands of the Slavic Rus. However, it was not only the wealth of Slavic cities and villages that attracted enemies. Their main goal was to establish control over the great trade route from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea, which became known as the "Varangian-Greek" route (the Greeks for the Slavic Rus were the Byzantines, who ruled a vast empire). The only way to counter this was with a united military force.

The Tale of Bygone Years tells us about the creation of the Old Russian state and the way it repelled its enemies. According to this account, in 862, a union of northern Slavic tribes expelled the Varangians from their territory and stopped paying tribute to them. However, the power of the victors was undermined by constant internal conflicts. To establish peace in their land, the Northern Slavs turned to their Varangian neighbors. Their envoys summoned King (Prince) Rurik and his brothers Sineus and Truvor to the Russian reign (their existence, however, is questioned by many researchers). Messengers of the Ilmen Slavs told Rurik: "Our land is large and abundant, but there is no order in it."

Rurik, who came to Russia with his retinue, "sat down to rule" in Novgorod. He united the entire Russian North and the northwestern lands, including the Finno-Ugric lands, under his rule. He ruled and judged according to the "Rada," the Novgorodian law. The prince relied on his retinue, which consisted of Varangians and Rus. Historians suggest that Rurik was a Slavic prince by birth, who led a Varangian army.

The successor of Rurik and his relative Prince Oleg in 882 made a campaign along the Dnieper and captured Kiev. It is this year that is considered to be the year of the formation of Ancient Russia as a single state, which included both Kiev and Novgorod. In the Tale of Bygone Years, it says: "And sede Oleg knyazha in Kyev, and reche Oleg: "Se budi mati grad Russkym". Since then, the expression "Kiev is the mother of Russian cities" has been used.".

Prince Oleg, who inherited the throne of the Prince of Kiev, Igor, the son of Rurik, and other rulers of Ancient Rus significantly expanded their territories by uniting the Rus tribes into a single whole. The Drevlians and Severians, the Ulichs and Tiverts, the Dregovichi and Radimichi, the Krivichi and Volynians, the Khorvatians and Vyatichi were all brought together. Ancient Rus immediately asserted its presence through military campaigns, thriving trade and crafts, and diplomatic relations.

Surrounded by warlike and hostile neighbors, the Russian land was constantly in a state of tension. Its rulers launched numerous military campaigns against Byzantium and its capital, Constantinople. However, the goal of these campaigns was not solely to acquire military conquests, but rather to secure the recognition of diplomatic and trade relations between the two states by the Byzantine emperors. This recognition formed the basis of the peace treaties between Russia and Byzantium.

Ancient Russia emerged victorious in a clash with such a strong opponent as the Khazar Kingdom. It was defeated by Prince Svyatoslav. He also conquered Bulgaria, defeated the Yases and Kasogs (Circassians), and inflicted a heavy defeat on Kama Bulgaria. Rusichs had to wage a long and stubborn struggle with the steppe hordes of nomadic Pechenegs.

Grand Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, nicknamed the Red Sun by the chroniclers, is considered to be the spiritual father of the Old Russian state. In 988, while ruling over pagan Russia, he made the decision to convert to Christianity. This year is considered to be the year when Orthodoxy was adopted as the state religion in Russia, which contributed to the introduction of European culture with its centuries-old history.

Ancient Rus reached its greatest power and prosperity during the reign of the great Kievan princes Yaroslav the Wise and his grandson Vladimir Monomakh (11th century - first quarter of the 12th century). During this period, Ancient Rus emerged as the largest and most influential power in Europe. The armed conflict with the Polovtsian Poles was successfully resolved. The Old Russian legal code, known as the "Russian Truth," was established. Becoming related to the Russian princely dynasty was highly prestigious among European rulers.

In the 12th century, the Grand Prince's throne in Kiev lost its former state-forming significance, and by the end of the century, the major Russian principalities had become sovereign states in their subsequent development. Their rulers, who had previously fought for the title of Grand Prince, now claimed it for themselves.

The first to receive the title of Grand Prince was Vsevolod the Big Nest, the ruler of Rostov-Suzdal. The Galician-Volyn, Ryazan, Smolensk, Polotsk-Minsk, and Tver principalities became other centers of Russian statehood. The Lord of Veliky Novgorod, a boyar republic and a prototype of an ancient democratic state, occupied a special place in the history of Ancient Rus, where the power of the Rurikid prince was combined with the power of the Novgorod boyars and the people's assembly, the Veche. The free city of Novgorod was a vast state that stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Urals.

At that time, the Russian land had historical prerequisites for reunification. The desire for reunification was evident in both the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galicia-Volhynia lands, as the capital city of Kiev had lost its former significance. However, this objective historical process was hindered by the conquest initiated by Batu Khan, the grandson of the great Genghis Khan, in 1237. The ancient Rus, divided into numerous principalities, was unable to unite its significant military forces and defend its state independence. The conquerors defeated the Russian princes one by one and established the Mongol rule over the lands of Ancient Rus.

Russia was enslaved by the Mongol yoke for more than 200 years. Its cultural and economic development was halted, and the principalities were devastated during the invasions. Moreover, the process of the final separation of the Russian principalities began. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was formed, incorporating the southern and western Russian principalities.

The weakness of the Russian land was immediately exploited by its northwestern neighbors. It is not without reason that the people say, "When trouble comes, open the gates." In 1240 and 1242, with the blessing of the Pope, two crusades were launched against the lands of Novgorod and Pskov by the Swedish Royal Knights and the German Livonian Order. However, the Russian army, led by the Orthodox Saint Prince Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky of Novgorod, inflicted a devastating defeat on the crusaders. The victories of Russian arms in the Battle of the Neva and the Battle on the Ice became one of the most striking pages in the military chronicles of the Russian Fatherland.

At the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries, the process of uniting the Russian lands into a single state began. The Moscow Principality emerged as its center, largely due to the wise, far-sighted, and consistent policies of its rulers.

In 1328, Ivan Kalita, the Prince of Moscow, received a "jarlik" from the Khan of the Golden Horde for the Grand Principality of Vladimir. From that time on, the Grand Principality of Vladimir was almost always ruled by the Moscow princes. Ivan Kalita himself is considered the founder of the Moscow branch of the Rurik dynasty. Even earlier, in 1326, Moscow became the center of not only political power but also the resurgent Russian state. The Metropolitan Court was moved from Vladimir-on-Klyazma to Moscow. From that time on, the Russian Orthodox Church became a reliable ally of the Moscow princes in the great task of uniting the Russian land into a single state.

The central location of the Principality of Moscow in the Russian lands under the Golden Horde yoke gave it great advantages over other principalities. People flocked here from the borderlands, which were constantly under threat of plundering by the Golden Horde. The city, located on a convenient river route, grew rapidly as a major craft and trade center. Powerful fortress walls were constantly being rebuilt around Moscow. The strong Moscow Grand Prince's army almost always emerged victorious in conflicts with its neighbors and Lithuania. The Moscow princes were able to find reliable allies among other regional rulers. They also pursued a policy of annexing more and more territories.

In 1367-1368, a white-stone Kremlin, a powerful fortress for its time, was built in the center of the city. The capitals of other Russian principalities had wooden (oak) fortress walls. This alone indicated the financial well-being of the Moscow ruler. A system of stone monastery-fortresses was constructed to effectively control the roads leading to Moscow from the Golden Horde.

The Moscow princes constantly improved the system of government. For example, Prince Dmitry Ivanovich restored the ancient form of treaties. In 1371, all the residents of Moscow swore allegiance to him. The boyars were losing their former power in the principality. The system of succession to the throne also changed. Previously, the younger brother inherited the throne of the older brother. However, since the reign of Ivan Kalita, the ruler-heir was not the brother of the deceased, but his eldest son.

Moscow's supremacy in the north-east of Russia inevitably led to the subjugation of other regional princes. However, this did not happen immediately, but rather through a long and bloody struggle with other principalities, particularly Tver and Ryazan, and the free city of Novgorod. Gradually, a strict order of direct subordination of appanage princes to the Grand Duke, who kept his table in Moscow, was developed:"I will sit on a horse (I will go on a campaign), and you will get on horses; when I do not go myself, but I will send you, you will go without disobedience."

The gathering of Russian lands around Moscow was a constant process. Already under Dmitry Donskoy, Dmitrov, Starodub, Uglich, Kostroma, and the vast northern territories around Beloozero, as well as a number of small Upper Oka principalities, were annexed to the Grand Prince's domain. By the end of the 14th century, Moscow's influence began to extend to the lands of the free city of Novgorod, including Verkhnekama, Velikaya, and Malaya Perm.

The restoration of economic activity in the Russian lands of the northeast of Ancient Rus went hand in hand with Moscow's recognition as the leader in the centuries-long struggle against the Golden Horde. The economic and spiritual power of the Moscow Principality was gradually complemented by its military strength. The number of fortified cities increased, and the Grand Prince's army grew, well-armed and trained, loyal to the ruler and the cause of liberating the Russian land. Moscow had reliable and loyal allies among the neighboring principalities.

All of this led to the fact that it was at this time that the famous Moscow prince Dmitry Donskoy began an open struggle against the Golden Horde's dependence. When the actual ruler of Sarai, Temnik Mamai, decided to repeat Batu's invasion of the Moscow Principality, almost all of Russia rose up in armed conflict against their common enemy. This was the closest unity that Ancient Russia had seen since the reign of the great Kiev prince Vladimir Monomakh.

Never before had the Russian land seen such a large army gathering near Moscow to participate in a great battle. Dmitry Donskoy, the great Russian military leader, boldly marched towards the larger army of the Golden Horde. On September 8, 1380, the historic Battle of Kulikovo took place, resulting in the decisive defeat of Mamai's forces.

During the Battle of Kulikovo, the Golden Horde was dealt a severe blow. However, the victory at Kulikovo did not lead to the complete liberation of Russia from the Golden Horde yoke, but it did contribute to the strengthening of the process of uniting the Russian principalities around Moscow, which inevitably led to the formation of a centralized Moscow-based Russian state. The Moscow principality now faced the Golden Horde and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with greater confidence, and its wars against them became increasingly successful.

Many Russian historians believe that Moscow's victories in the internecine feudal (princely) wars against its neighbors, as well as the beginning of the reign of Ivan III Vasilyevich (1462-1505), marked the end of the history of the Old Russian state. The Old Russian state was replaced by the Moscow state. Ivan III's son, Vasily III Ivanovich, became the last "gatherer of the Russian land," bringing the Yaroslavl and Rostov principalities under his "sovereign rule," and in 1478, he also conquered the city of Veliky Novgorod.