R. S. KHASIEV

MGIMO University(U) Russian Foreign Ministry

Keywords: China, water resources, freshwater scarcity, water pollution, underground water exploitation

1^{China's population growth and rapid economic development over the past few decades have led to environmental degradation. One of the main problems in China is the lack of fresh water: almost two-thirds of the 600 large and medium-sized cities in the country are experiencing difficulties with water supply, and in 100 of them the problem is very acute}.

In recent years, the lack of sufficient water resources has become a constraint on the development of the economy and society. According to experts, the situation will only get worse in the future, which can lead to serious economic and social problems.

PLENTY OF WATER, BUT NOT ENOUGH

In terms of domestic renewable water resources - 2,738 km3/year - China ranks 6th in the world after Brazil (8,233 km3 / year), Russia (4,498 km3/year), Canada (^3,300 km3/year), the United States (3,069 km3/year) and Indonesia (2,838 km3 / year). This is followed by Colombia (2,133 km3/year), Peru (1,913 km3/year), India (1,907.⁸ km3/year) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (1,283 km3/year)^.2

However, the average amount of water resources per person in China in 2008 was 2111 ^m3 / year, compared to the global average of 6466 ^m3 / year (128th place in the world).³, and in the USA-10333 ^m3 / year, in Russia-31650 ^m3 / year. By 2033, when China's population reaches an estimated maximum of 1.5 billion people, this figure will drop to 1,890 ^m3/year. However, in India the situation is even more dramatic: there is already only 1,754 ^m3 of water per ^person per year4. The eastern and southern parts of China are located in the monsoon climate zone. The mountains and plateaus located on its territory do not allow monsoons to penetrate into the north-western part of the country, so the level of precipitation there is low. The average annual precipitation in the country is 645 mm.

Table 1

Major rivers in China

Источник: AQUASTAT, FAO's Information System on Water and Agriculture, China profile - http://fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/china/index.stm

At the same time, in some regions of the south and southwest of the country, precipitation can reach 2000 mm, but it is gradually reduced to 1000 mm when moving north to the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. In the Huaihe River basin, this figure is 400-900 mm, and in the northern plains of China and in the northwestern provinces it does not exceed 400 mm. The lowest values of average annual precipitation (less than 25 mm) were recorded in the Tarim River basin in the north-west of the country.

In total, there are more than 50 thousand rivers in China, of which 1500 are rivers whose basin area exceeds 1000 km3. About-

The average annual flow of rivers flowing through the country is 2711 km3 / year. 98% of the runoff is formed by precipitation, and the remaining 2% is formed by melting glacies5.

The territory of China is usually divided into nine river basins: the Sungari-Liaohe, Haihe-Luanhe, Honghe, Huaihe, Yangtze, Jujiang River basins, the basins of south-eastern rivers, south-western rivers and inland rivers (see Fig. 1, Table 2).

1. River basins of China.

Source: Dajun Shen. River Basin Water Resources Management in China: a Legal and Institutional assessment. Water International, Vol. 34, No. 4, December 2009.

On the territory of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau located in western China, there are more than 35 thousand glaciers. They are located within the borders of six north-and south-western provinces and autonomous regions (Gansu, Xinjiang, Qinghai, Tibet, Sichuan and Yunnan) and cover an area exceeding 50 thousand km3. The annual runoff of water due to melting glaciers in China is 56 km3, which is enough to maintain the flow in rivers during ^the dry period6. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is home to two of China's largest and most important rivers, the Yangtze and Yellow River, as well as many rivers that are trans - border for China and its neighbors. The largest and most important of them include the Indus, Brahmaputra, Mekong, Salween, Tarim.

There are about 2,300 natural lakes in China, with a total water volume of more than 700 km3. However, most of these lakes are saline, and only 31.9% of their total volume (226 km3) is freshwater ^.7

The most important role in the country's water economy is played by underground water resources. Their average annual volume is 828 km3. About 70% of these resources are concentrated in the south of the country, and only 30% are located in the most water-hungry northern provinces.

Groundwater provides 70% of the potable water supplied to residents, and also covers up to 40% of the need for agricultural water.⁸ While surface water is the main source for the southern territories (90%), most of China's groundwater use is in the northern provinces, five of which (Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei, Shanxi, and Inner Mongolia) accounted for the largest share in 2005. they accounted for 65% of all water resources used. In three northeastern provinces (Dilin, Liaoning, and Heilongjiang), this figure is 45%. These numbers are constantly growing ⁹.

Table 2

Major water Consumers in China

Источник: AQUASTAT, FAO's Information System on Water and Agriculture, China profile - http://fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/china/index.stm

Underground water resources play a key role in the North China Plain, where industry, agriculture and a number of large cities are developed. In conditions of surface water scarcity, more than 60% of the water required for irrigation is taken from underground aquifers.

As noted above, China is characterized by an extremely uneven territorial distribution of water resources. While the South has sufficient water resources to meet the needs of the region's economy and population, the northern provinces are characterized by acute water scarcity.

The total water resources of the northern part of the PRC, which includes the basins of the Yellow River, Huaihe, Haihe and Liaohe (North China Plain), make up only 1/5 of the total figure for the country. The most severe water crisis affected the Huaihe and Haihe River basins, where less than 500 ^m3/year of fresh water is available per person. For comparison, in the river basins in the south-west of the country, this figure reaches 25,000 ^m3 Dod ¹⁰. At the same time, the north of China accounts for 2/3 of the country's agricultural land, 45% of its GDP ¹¹. In addition to exceeding the North in the amount of surface water, the South significantly exceeds it in the amount of underground water (70% vs. 30%).

WATER POLLUTION IS THE MAIN REASON FOR WATER SCARCITY

In recent years, the structure of water consumption by economic sector has undergone significant changes. They are mainly related to the decline in the share of agriculture, which decreased from ⁸³% to 65% between 1990 and 200512. This trend is associated not so much with a decrease in the absolute volume of water consumption in rural areas, but with a sharply increased demand for water in industry and household needs.

For several decades, the country's development policy has focused on economic growth. Environmental protection was given secondary importance by the authorities, or even completely ignored. This was mainly due to the unwillingness of State-owned enterprises or individual entrepreneurs to bear additional costs that increase the price of the final product and undermine its competitiveness. Local authorities often turned a blind eye to the current situation, as the central government demanded that they fulfill the plan and constantly increase the economic indicators of the region.

The volume of industrially polluted water in China increased from 19.4 km3 / year in 1999 to ^24.3 km3 / year in 2005. During the same period, the amount of non-industrial waste contained in water increased from 20.4 km3 to 28.1 km3 ^/ year13.

In order to protect and use the country's water resources, the State has introduced a water quality classification system that meets international standards. According to this system, the state's water resources are divided into 6 categories, reflecting the level of pollution and possible areas of water use:

Category 1-clean water that meets the requirements of national nature reserves.

Category 2 - waters suitable for use in Class A water resource protection zones for centralized water supply, reserves for rare fish species and for their spawning.

Category 3 - waters suitable for use in Class B water resource protection zones for centralized water supply, nature reserves for common fish species, and for organizing bathing areas.

Category 4 - waters suitable for industrial use, but unsuitable for swimming.

Category 5 - water suitable for irrigation purposes.

Category 5+ - unusable water.

Based on the results of long-term monitoring of water resources in the PRC, it can be argued that, in general, their quality is very low. This is clearly seen in Table 3.

Table 3

Water quality in China's seven major rivers, according to the Water Resources Classification System, 2005 (%)

Source: Haider A. Khan, Yibei Liu. Ecological Economics of Water in China: towards a Strategy for Sustainable Development, Munich Personal RePEc Archive, 2008.

The total annual amount of wastewater in China is constantly growing. If in 1993-1997 their average annual volume on the territory of the country was about 37 km3 / year, then by 2007 this figure reached almost 54 km3 / year. Despite a significant increase in the total volume of wastewater, the number of wastewater treated remained virtually unchanged between 1993 and 2004, decreasing from 23.3 km3 / year to 22.1 km3 / year. However, this indicator began to improve significantly after 2004, and by 2006 it had already reached the level of 30 km3 / year, or 56% of the total volume of wastewater ⁱⁿ China14.

All wastewater can be divided into two categories: industrial and non-industrial origin. Since the 1990s, the total volume of industrial wastewater has remained at a stable level - about 20-25 km3 / year, with a slight downward trend. The overall increase in the amount of wastewater in the country was due to a significant increase in the volume of wastewater from non-industrial sources. From 1990 to 2005, this indicator increased from 10.5 km3 / year to 28.1 km3/year15.

The reduction, albeit insignificant, in the amount of industrial wastewater was made possible by government environmental programs. The Central Government encourages the introduction of new cleaning technologies in industrial facilities and the use of water-saving production technologies. As a result of the increase in the minimum requirements for the treatment of used water, enterprises that did not meet the new standards were closed or were forced to upgrade by installing water treatment equipment.

The results show that the implemented programs give the necessary effect. The percentage of industrial effluents meeting state standards has significantly increased, while the amount of hazardous pollutants has decreased by almost one-fifth.

URBANISATION AND AGRICULTURE ARE ENEMIES OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The situation is much worse with drains of non-industrial origin. As mentioned above, their volume has more than doubled in 15 years.

This trend is directly related to the country's urbanization. With a total population of 962.59 million in 1978, the urban population was only 172.45 million (17.92%), and the rural population was 790.14 million (82.08%)¹⁶. In 2011, for the first time, there were 690.79 million more urban residents in China than 656.56 million rural residents ¹⁷.

The increase in the number of urban residents was a condition and one of the main reasons for the increase in the average standard of living in the country.

Over time, more and more Chinese residents are gaining access to centralized sewage systems, which are often already obsolete, and existing sewage treatment plants are not able to cope with the growing amount of water that needs to be treated. In order to solve the problem of municipal water, many cities are currently working to replace and improve old sewage systems and treatment plants designed to meet new requirements. A culture of water consumption, water conservation and protection of water resources is promoted among the population.

However, there is still no downward trend in the growth rate of domestic wastewater in China. Measures taken by the central and local authorities have not kept pace with the worsening of the problem.

Agricultural activities remain another important source of non-industrial wastewater. Pollution occurs mainly through the ingress of fertilizers and pesticides from cultivated fields and the ingress of animal waste.

Over the past half-century, the increased use of fertilizers and the increase in their quantity per unit area of farmland under cultivation have made it possible to significantly increase the level of food consumption in China. This was the result of the "warm and feed the population" policy, in particular, the expansion of the total area of arable land. However, the amount of fertilizers applied more than quadrupled from 1980 to 2005, exceeding 48 million tons per ^year18.

After the "cultural revolution" in the 60s and 80s, the diet of the average Chinese citizen was very poor and extremely monotonous (the famous "iron cup of rice"). There was a constant threat of famine, which became a reality in lean years.

Today the situation is quite different. Chinese people consume more and more animal products such as meat, eggs, dairy products and others. This kind of change was made possible by the rapid pace of livestock development, the expansion of livestock farms, the construction of poultry farms, etc. This has also led to an increase in the amount of polluted water runoff that enters rivers and lakes either directly or by infiltration.

Agricultural runoff has become a serious environmental problem for China, due to the imbalance between the population's needs for agricultural products and the resources available to meet them.

Food security is a priority of the Chinese leadership's policy. But little is being done to reduce the level of water pollution in this sector of the economy. The situation is compounded by the fact that, unlike sources of industrial pollution, agricultural effluents do not belong to the point, which greatly complicates their control.

Thus, serious pollution of river basins and other water bodies has become a fact.-

tov on the whole territory of China. There are no clean rivers left in the country. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), almost 80% of China's river waters have been degraded to the point that they are no longer suitable for most fish species. In rivers located near major cities, the share of water pollution reaches 90%, especially in the north of the country, where heavy industry is developed.

The same fate befell more than half of the groundwater. According to the results of river quality studies in China (the total number of rivers studied is 745), in 2004 28% of river waters were completely unsuitable for use, and only 32% were considered safe for industrial and irrigation applications.¹⁹

The high level of water pollution contributes to the already serious problem of water scarcity. Today, in China, about 25 km3 ^of surface water is not used due to pollution, which is the direct cause of excessive demand for groundwater. However, 47 km3 ^of water that does not meet quality standards is used for industrial, agricultural and domestic purposes.²⁰

The quality of water coming from China to neighboring countries becomes the subject of claims and disagreements no less than its quantity. Therefore, monitoring the level of pollution of transboundary water bodies has become a task not only for China's domestic, but also for its foreign policy.

CATASTROPHIC CONSEQUENCES OF THE WATER "RIOT"

The uneven distribution of water resources between the north and south of the country, along with other climatic and geographical factors, causes frequent disasters. While the northern territories are subject to the negative impact of droughts, in China south of the Yangtze River, the main problem remains frequent flooding in the summer, when the flow of rivers increases sharply.

Over the centuries, the human toll caused by floods in the Yangtze basin and other high-water rivers in China has been estimated in the hundreds of thousands, and by some estimates, even in the millions.²¹

Such a large number of human casualties is due, in addition to the huge floods on the southern rivers during the high-water period, to the settlement of residents in flood-prone river valleys and high population density. The Ministry of Water Resources of China predicts that by 2020, 41% of the country's population will be at risk of flooding. Already, about 67% of China's GDP is produced in regions that are dangerous from the point of view of this natural disaster.²²

In addition to human casualties, floods always bring destruction and cause huge damage to the country's economy, which was measured in huge numbers. According to Chinese Water Resources Minister Chen Lei, from 1990 to 2007, direct average annual economic losses due to floods in China amounted to almost 2% of the country's average annual GDP.²³

In 2005, seasonal floods killed more than a thousand people. In 2007, floods affected 180 million people, destroyed crops on an area of 12 million hectares, and destroyed more than a million homes. ²⁴

According to official data, only for the first half of 2010. The floods killed more than 700 people and caused $21 billion in damage. 25 rivers burst their banks, and three-quarters of China's provinces fell into the disaster zone. There was a danger of breaking through the country's largest dam "Three Gorges", which worked at the limit of its capabilities, dumping 70 thousand cubic meters of water per second, but the water level continued to rise.

Significant economic losses are also caused by droughts, which, like floods, have become more frequent in recent years. Usually, the low-water north of the country suffers from them. Nevertheless, it is in the territories north of the Yangtze that irrigation systems are most developed, and the main agricultural areas are concentrated, which are the basis of the country's food security. It is home to the provinces of Henan, Shandong and Hebei, China's breadbaskets, where almost half of the country's wheat is grown.²⁵

However, even relatively water-rich regions of the country have become more vulnerable to droughts in recent years. For example, in 2007, a prolonged dry period in Southern China left more than a million people without adequate water supplies. Then the drought spread to most regions of the country, hundreds of reservoirs, thousands of wells dried up, and the water level in such large rivers as the Yangtze, Yellow River and Jujiang significantly decreased. And in Jiangxi Province, China's largest freshwater lake, Poyanghu, the water level fell to a historic low, which led to an acute shortage of drinking water for residents of the region.

UNDER THREAT - UNDERGROUND WATER

Overexploitation of underground water is typical for:-

countries experiencing water scarcity. And the withdrawal of groundwater in volumes exceeding their renewal is fraught with a drop in their level. This has already become a serious problem in several regions of Asia - the Middle East, South Asia, and China.

Since, as noted above, the northern territories of China experience a shortage of surface water and are the most important economic region of the country, the lack of water is compensated by intensive withdrawal of water from underground sources.

Total amount of groundwater used in China in 1993-1997 It was 87 km3, and in 2003-2007 it exceeded the 100 km3 mark, as a result of which land subsidence is constantly occurring in ⁵⁶ regions of the country26.

Overexploitation of underground water resources on a particularly large scale occurs in the North China Plain. After adopting the policy of food self-sufficiency, it became the main producer of agricultural crops. Today, this territory accounts for up to 40% of the country's grain harvest, including more than half of the wheat crop.²⁷ Such an active agricultural activity on the plain is carried out in conditions of extremely limited water resources.

Predatory use of underground water resources leads to a constant lowering of water horizons, the water level in which falls at an average rate of 1.5 m per year (for comparison, in India this figure is 1-3 m per year). The situation is disastrous in the Haihe River basin, where, with a permissible groundwater withdrawal rate of 17 km3 / year, more than ²⁶ km3/year is actually pumped out. Thus, the volume of excess operation reaches almost ⁹ km3 ^/ year28. In general, in the country due to the North, this figure is about ²⁴ km3 / year29.

At such a rate of decline in underground water resources, sustainable development* of the country is unlikely to be possible. The depletion of groundwater has led to a significant reduction in wetland areas: In the North China Plain, more than 80% of swamps have dried up.

However, not only the quantity, but also the quality of underground water is under threat. In addition to the anthropogenic factor, the coastal areas are affected by the penetration of salt water into fresh aquifers.

INEFFICIENT USE OF WATER RESOURCES

Huge water losses also occur in China due to the low level of efficient management and use of water resources.

Water use is heavily subsidized by the Chinese authorities, which greatly reduces its price. Water consumers, whether businesses, farmers, or households, have no incentive to save water. Intensive use of water in large volumes is taken for granted.

Thus, the irrigation system on the territory of the country is ineffective. Most of the water flowing through open irrigation channels seeps through the soil and is lost. In irrigated agricultural areas, the evaporation rate is too high. In general, less than 50% of water is effectively used.

In addition, in China, significant acreage is occupied by crops that require a large amount of moisture, which means intensive irrigation. These include wheat, rice, and others. For several decades, farmers and politicians have ignored the warnings of scientists about the impracticality of growing such crops, especially rice. In the future, apparently, the Chinese authorities will have to reduce the area where water-intensive crops are cultivated.

Figure 2. Distribution of dams in the world.

WILL DAMS HELP?

The Chinese authorities have high hopes for the construction of dams, the construction plan of which has been developed for many years in the future.-

* Sustainable development - the development of a society in which the exploitation of natural resources, scientific and technological progress, personal development and institutional changes are coordinated with each other and ensure that the needs and aspirations of present and future generations are met. ed.).

ed. These hydraulic structures are used to accumulate water resources, generate electricity, and control runoff to prevent flooding.

In terms of the scale and pace of construction of hydroelectric power plants and dams, China by a large margin occupies a leading place in the world. The number of hydraulic structures on its territory reaches 45% of the world's total (see Figure 2).

Already in 2009, China ranks first in the world in terms of hydropower production (549 billion kWh), significantly outstripping the following countries - Brazil (387.1 billion kWh), Canada (363.2 billion kWh), the United States (272.1 billion kWh) and Russia (163.2 billion kwh)³⁰.

China's largest and most ambitious project in this area is the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River near Yichang, Hubei Province. The project was successfully completed in 2006. The dam reaches 600 m in length and 200 m in height, the volume of the reservoir formed is ³⁹ km3.

However, along with the positive effect of dam construction, there are a number of negative consequences: flooding of large areas suitable for agriculture and forestry, disruption of natural fish routes, the need to relocate a large number of local residents, draining and polluting the underlying lakes and swamps, as well as huge water losses through evaporation, since the mirror area of the water surface is less than the resulting reservoirs increases significantly.

Thus, China is facing a number of acute problems related to water resources. In addition to the extremely uneven distribution of precipitation, surface water, and groundwater between the northern and southern parts of the country, these include: poor water quality, water-related disasters, excessive use of groundwater, inefficient use of water, and population growth and urbanization.

It can be argued with a certain degree of probability that if China does not radically change the attitude towards water and its drains of various origins, then in the coming decades the progressive shortage of fresh water will become the main factor in the degradation of wildlife and the country's population.

The construction of dams and the twisting of rivers may delay the final act of the unfolding tragedy, but they will not help to avoid it. According to experts, only deep and widespread purification of used water for the purpose of its repeated turnover, together with the widespread introduction of water-saving technologies in industry and agriculture, can stop the country from sliding to the edge of the abyss.

^{Gleick Peter H.} 1, Cooley Heather, Morikawa Man. The World's Water 2008-2009: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resourses, p. 85 - www.worldwater.org

² The World's Water. Total Renewable Fresh Water Supply, by Country - http://www.worldwater.org/datav?/data_table_1_total_renewable_freshwater_supply_by_cou ntry.pdf

^{Haider A.Khan} 3, Yibei Liu. Ecological Economics of Water in China: towards a Strategy for Sustainable Development // Munich Personal RePEc Archive, 2008.

^{Brooks Nina.} 4 Impending Water Crisis in China. The Arlington Institute - http://www.arlingtoninstitute.org/wbp/global-water-crisis/457

⁵ AQUASTAT, FAO's Information System on Water and Agriculture, China profile - http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/china/index.stm

^{Brooks Nina.} 6 Op. cit.

⁷ AQUASTAT, FAO's Information System on Water and Agriculture...

^{Brooks Nina.} 8 Op. cit.; Sebastien Peyrouse. Flowing Downstream: the Sino-Kazakh Water Dispute. China Brief, Vol. 7, May 16, 2007.

⁹ AQUASTAT, FAO's Information System on Water and Agriculture..; Brooks Nina. Op. cit.

¹⁰ Ibidem.

^{Dajun Shen.} 11 River Basin Water Resources Management in China: a Legal and Institutional Assessment // Water International, No. 4, December 2009.

¹² AQUASTAT, FAO's Information System on Water and Agriculture, database China - http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/query/results.html

^{Haider A.Khan} 13, Yibei Liu. Op. cit.

¹⁴ AQUASTAT, FAO's Information System on Water and Agriculture. China profile... AQUASTAT, FAO's Information System on Water and Agriculture, database China...

^{Brooks Nina...} 15 Op. cit.

¹⁶ AQUASTAT, FAO's Information System on Water and Agriculture, database China...

¹⁷ National Bureau of Statistics of China. China' Total Population and Structural Changes in 2011. 20.01.2012 - http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20120120_402780233.htm

¹⁸ China Statistics 2005. Irrigated Area, Consumption of Chemical Fertilizers - http://www.allcountries.org/china_statistics/13_8_irrigated_area_consumption_of_chemical.h tml

^{Haider A.Khan} 19, Yibei Liu. Op. cit.

^{Dajun Shen.} 20 Op. cit.

^{Cooley H.} 21 Floods and droughts. The World's Water 2006-2007, p. 91-116.

²² Senior Official: 41 % Chinese to Live in Flood-prone Areas by 2020 //Xinhua, 8.12.2007.

^{Gleick Peter H.} 23, Cooley Heather, Morikawa Man. Op. cit., p. 87.

²⁴ Ibidem.

²⁵ China Statistics 2005 Irrigated Area... Op. cit.

²⁶ AQUASTAT, FAO's Information System on Water and Agriculture, database China...

^{Danilov-Danilyan V. I.} 27, Losev K. S. Water consumption: Ecological, Economic, social and political aspects. Moscow, Nauka Publ., 2006.

²⁸ AQUASTAT, FAO's Information System on Water and Agriculture. China profile...

^{Jian Xie.} 29 Addressing China's Water Scarcity. World Bank, 2009.

³⁰ US Energy Information Administration. International Energy Statistics. Hydroelectricity Net Generation - http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/iedindex3.cfm?tid=2&pid=29&aid=12&c id=regions&syid=2005&eyid=2009&unit=BKWH